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<p>{{Anthropology}}
<b>Anthropology</b> ({{pron-en}}, from the <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> {{lang}}, <i>anthrōpos</i>, "human", and -λογία, <i><a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia">-logia</a></i>, "discourse", first use in English: 1593)<sup id="_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#_note-1" title="">[1]</a></sup> is the study of <a href="Humans" title="humans">human beings</a>, everywhere and throughout time.</p>
<p>Anthropology has its intellectual origins in both the <a href="Natural_sciences" title="natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, and the <a href="Humanities" title="humanities">humanities</a>.<sup id="_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#_note-2" title="">[2]</a></sup>  Its basic questions concern, "What defines <i>Homo sapiens</i>?"  "Who are the ancestors of modern <i>Homo sapiens</i>?" "What are our physical traits?"  "How do we behave?"  "Why are there variations and differences among different groups of humans?"  "How has the evolutionary past of <i>Homo sapiens</i> influenced its social organization and culture?" and so forth.</p>
<p>While specific modern anthropologists have a tendency to specialize in technical subfields, their data and ideas are routinely synthesized into larger works about the scope and progress of our species.<sup id="_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#_note-3" title="">[3]</a></sup></p>
<p>The term "anthropology" refers in common parlance most often to <a href="Cultural_Anthropology" title="Cultural Anthropology">Cultural Anthropology</a>, the study of the culture, beliefs, and practices of living people. In American universities, however, the department of Anthropology often includes three or four subfields, including cultural anthropology, <a href="Archaeology" title="archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="Biological_anthropology" title="biological anthropology">biological anthropology</a> and <a href="Linguistic_anthropology" title="linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>. However, in universities in the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and much of <a href="Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, these fields are frequently housed in separate departments.<sup id="_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#_note-4" title="">[4]</a></sup></p>
<table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents">
<tr>
<td>
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
</div>
<ul>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#A_brief_overview_of_the_discipline">A brief overview of the discipline</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Basic_trends_in_anthropology">Basic trends in anthropology</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#History_of_anthropology">History of anthropology</a>
</li>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#20th_Century">20th Century</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Anthropology_by_nation">Anthropology by nation</a>
</li>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Anthropology_in_Britain">Anthropology in Britain</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Anthropology_in_the_United_States">Anthropology in the United States</a>
</li>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3"><a href="#19th_Century_to_1940s">19th Century to 1940s</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3"><a href="#Boasian_anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Anthropology_in_Canada">Anthropology in Canada</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Anthropology_in_France">Anthropology in France</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Other_countries">Other countries</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Anthropology_after_World_War_II:_Increasing_dialogue_in_Anglophone_anthropology">Anthropology after World War II: Increasing dialogue in Anglophone anthropology</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Controversies_about_the_history_of_anthropology">Controversies about the history of anthropology</a>
</li>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Anthropology_and_the_military">Anthropology and the military</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Major_discussions_about_anthropology">Major discussions about anthropology</a>
</li>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Focus_on_other_cultures">Focus on other cultures</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#See_also">See also</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#References">References</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Further_reading">Further reading</a>
</li>
<ul>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias_of_anthropology">Dictionaries and encyclopedias of anthropology</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists">Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#History_of_anthropology">History of anthropology</a>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works">Textbooks and key theoretical works</a>
</li>
</ul>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#External_links">External links</a>
</li>
</ul>
</ul></td></tr></table><hr/>
<a id="A_brief_overview_of_the_discipline" name="A_brief_overview_of_the_discipline"/><h2>A brief overview of the discipline</h2>
<p>One traditional approach to simplifying such a vast enterprise has been to divide anthropology into four fields, each with its own further branches: <a href="Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological or physical anthropology</a>, <a href="Cultural_anthropology" title="cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, <a href="Archaeology" title="archaeology">archaeology</a> and <a href="Anthropological_linguistics" title="anthropological linguistics">anthropological linguistics</a>.</p>
<p>Briefly put, biological or physical anthropology includes the study of <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">human evolution</a>, human <a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="Population_genetics" title="population genetics">population genetics</a>, our nearest biological relatives, <a href="Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">classification</a> of ancient hominids, <a href="Paleontology" title="paleontology">paleontology</a> of humans, distribution human <a href="Alleles" title="alleles">alleles</a>, blood types and the <a href="Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">human genome project</a>. <a href="Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a> studies our nearest non-human relatives (human beings are primates), and some primatologists use field observation methods, written up in a manner quite similar to ethnography.<sup id="_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#_note-5" title="">[5]</a></sup></p>
<p>Biological anthropology is used by other fields to shed light on how a particular folk got to where they are, how frequently they've encountered and married outsiders, whether a particular group is protein-deprived, and to understand the brain processes involved in the production of language. Other related fields or subfields include <a href="Paleoanthropology" title="paleoanthropology">paleoanthropology</a>, <a href="Anthropometrics" title="anthropometrics">anthropometrics</a>, nutritional anthropology, and <a href="Forensic_anthropology" title="forensic anthropology">forensic anthropology</a>.</p>
<p>Cultural anthropology is often based on <a href="Ethnography" title="ethnography">ethnography</a>, a kind of writing used throughout anthropology to present data on a particular people or folk (from the Greek, <i>ethnos</i>/Έθνος), often based on <a href="Participant_observation" title="participant observation">participant observation</a> research. <a href="Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a> involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. Cultural anthropology is also called socio-cultural anthropology or social anthropology (especially in Great Britain). In some European countries, cultural anthropology is known as <a href="Ethnology" title="ethnology">ethnology</a> (a term coined and defined by <a href="Adam_Franti%C5%A1ek_Koll%C3%A1r" title="Adam František Kollár">Adam F. Kollár</a> in 1783).<sup id="_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#_note-6" title="">[6]</a></sup></p>
<p>The study of <a href="Kinship" title="kinship">kinship</a> and <a href="Social_organization" title="social organization">social organization</a> is a central focus of cultural anthropology, as kinship is a <a href="Human_universal" title="human universal">human universal</a>. Cultural anthropology also covers: economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language, which is also the object of study in linguistics. Note the way in which some of these topics overlap with topics in the other subfields.</p>
<p>Archaeology is the study of human material culture, including both <a href="Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a> (older pieces of human culture) carefully gathered <i>in situ</i>, museum pieces and modern garbage.<sup id="_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#_note-7" title="">[7]</a></sup>  Archaeologists work closely with biological anthropologists, art historians, physics laboratories (for dating), and museums. They are charged with preserving the results of their excavations and are often found in museums. Typically, archaeologists are associated with "digs," or excavation of layers of ancient sites.</p>
<p>Archaeologists subdivide time into cultural periods based on long-lasting artifacts: for example the <a href="Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, the <a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, the <a href="Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, which are further subdivided according to artifact traditions and culture region, such as the <a href="Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> or the <a href="Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian</a>. In this way, archaeologists provide a vast reference of the places human beings have traveled over the past 200,000 years, their ways of making a living, and their <a href="Demographics" title="demographics">demographics</a>. Archaeologists also investigate nutrition, symbolization, art, systems of writing, and other physical remnants of human cultural activity.</p>
<p>Linguistics is the study of language.  <a href="Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic anthropology</a> (also called <a href="Anthropological_linguistics" title="anthropological linguistics">anthropological linguistics</a>) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in <a href="Language" title="language">language</a> across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including <a href="Anthropological_linguistics" title="anthropological linguistics">anthropological linguistics</a>, <a href="Sociolinguistics" title="sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, <a href="Pragmatics" title="pragmatics">pragmatics</a>, <a href="Cognitive_linguistics" title="cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a>, <a href="Semiotics" title="semiotics">semiotics</a>, <a href="Discourse_analysis" title="discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>, and <a href="Narrative" title="narrative">narrative</a> analysis.<sup id="_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#_note-8" title="">[8]</a></sup></p>
<p>This field is divided into its own subfields: <a href="Descriptive_linguistics" title="descriptive linguistics">descriptive linguistics</a> the construction of grammars and lexicons for unstudied languages; <a href="Historical_linguistics" title="historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>, including the reconstruction of past languages, from which our current languages have descended; <a href="Ethnolinguistics" title="ethnolinguistics">ethnolinguistics</a>, the study of the relationship between language and culture, and <a href="Sociolinguistics" title="sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, the study of the social functions of language. Anthropological linguistics is also concerned with the evolution of the parts of the brain that deal with language.<sup id="_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#_note-9" title="">[9]</a></sup></p>
<p>Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see <a href="History_of_Anthropology" title="History of Anthropology">History of Anthropology</a>), including but not limited to <a href="Fossil_collecting" title="Fossil collecting">fossil-hunting</a>, <a href="Exploration" title="Exploration">exploring</a>, documentary film-making, <a href="Paleontology" title="paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="Primatology" title="primatology">primatology</a>, antiquity dealings and curatorship, <a href="Philology" title="philology">philology</a>, <a href="Etymology" title="etymology">etymology</a>, <a href="Genetics" title="genetics">genetics</a>, regional analysis, <a href="Ethnology" title="ethnology">ethnology</a>, <a href="History" title="history">history</a>, <a href="Philosophy" title="philosophy">philosophy</a> and <a href="Religious_studies" title="religious studies">religious studies</a>,<sup id="_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#_note-10" title="">[10]</a></sup><sup id="_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#_note-11" title="">[11]</a></sup> it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.<sup id="_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#_note-12" title="">[12]</a></sup></p>
<p>On the one hand this has led to instability in many American anthropology departments, resulting in the division or reorganization of subfields (e.g. at Stanford, Duke, and most recently at Harvard).<sup id="_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#_note-13" title="">[13]</a></sup> However, seen in a positive light, anthropology is one of the few place in many American universities where humanities, social, and natural sciences are forced to confront one another.
As such, anthropology has also been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as <a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="cognitive neuroscience">cognitive neuroscience</a>, <a href="Global_studies" title="global studies">global studies</a>, and various <a href="Ethnic_studies" title="ethnic studies">ethnic studies</a>.</p>
<a id="Basic_trends_in_anthropology" name="Basic_trends_in_anthropology"/><h2>Basic trends in anthropology</h2>
<p>The goal of anthropology is to provide a <a href="Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> account of humans and human nature. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior."<sup id="_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#_note-14" title="">[14]</a></sup>  Today, most anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of <a href="Subsistence" title="subsistence">subsistence</a> or <a href="Modes_of_production" title="Modes of production">production</a>, such as "hunter-gatherer" or "forager" or "simple farmer" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (<i>ethnos</i>) remaining of great interest within anthropology.</p>
<p>The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular folk or people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.<sup id="_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#_note-15" title="">[15]</a></sup>  In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<sup id="_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#_note-16" title="">[16]</a></sup></p>
<p>Anthropologists are interested in both human variation<sup id="_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#_note-17" title="">[17]</a></sup> and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures)<sup id="_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#_note-18" title="">[18]</a></sup>  They use many different methods of study, but modern population <a href="Genetics" title="genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="Participant_observation" title="participant observation">participant observation</a> and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field" which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork."  On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Due to the interest in variation, anthropologists are drawn to the study of human extremes, aberrations and other unusual circumstances, such as <a href="Headhunting" title="headhunting">headhunting</a>, <a href="Whirling_dervishes" title="whirling dervishes">whirling dervishes</a>, whether there were real <a href="Homo_floresienses" title="Homo floresienses">Hobbit people</a>, <a href="Snake_handling" title="snake handling">snake handling</a>, and <a href="Glossolalia" title="Glossolalia">glossolalia (speaking in tongues)</a>, just to list a few.</p>
<p>At the same time, anthropologists urge, as part of their quest for scientific objectivity, <a href="Cultural_relativism" title="cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, which has an influence on all the subfields of anthropology. This is the notion that particular cultures should not be judged by one culture's values or viewpoints, but that all cultures should be viewed as relative to each other. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.<sup id="_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#_note-19" title="">[19]</a></sup></p>
<p>Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting <a href="Genocide" title="genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="Infanticide" title="infanticide">infanticide</a>, <a href="Racism" title="racism">racism</a>, <a href="Mutilation" title="mutilation">mutilation</a> including especially circumcision and subincision, and <a href="Torture" title="torture">torture</a>. Topics like racism, slavery or human sacrifice, therefore, attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies<sup id="_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#_note-20" title="">[20]</a></sup> to genes<sup id="_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#_note-21" title="">[21]</a></sup> to <a href="Acculturation" title="acculturation">acculturation</a> have been proposed, not to mention theories of  <a href="Colonialism" title="colonialism">colonialism</a> and many others as root causes of man's inhumanity to man. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the subfields (and sub-subfields).<sup id="_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#_note-22" title="">[22]</a></sup></p>
<p>In addition to dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the <a href="Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> and the <a href="Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as <a href="Olduwan" title="Olduwan">Olduwan</a> or <a href="Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> or <a href="Levallois" title="Levallois">Levallois</a> help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to <a href="Culture_regions" title="Culture regions">Culture regions</a> as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of <a href="Comparative_method" title="comparative method">comparative method</a>, a central part of their science.</p>
<p>Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the <a href="American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a>, which was founded in 1903.<sup id="_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#_note-23" title="">[23]</a></sup> Membership is made up of Anthropologists from around the globe.<sup id="_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#_note-24" title="">[24]</a></sup>  Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various subfields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as <a href="Geology" title="geology">geology</a>, <a href="Physics" title="physics">physics</a>, <a href="Zoology" title="zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="Paleontology" title="paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="Anatomy" title="anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="Music_theory" title="music theory">music theory</a>, <a href="Art_history" title="art history">art history</a>, <a href="Sociology" title="sociology">sociology</a> and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.<sup id="_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#_note-25" title="">[25]</a></sup></p>
<a id="History_of_anthropology" name="History_of_anthropology"/><h2>History of anthropology</h2>
<p>{{main}}
The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humankind was apparently in 1593, the first of the "logies" to be coined.<sup id="_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#_note-26" title="">[26]</a></sup> It took <a href="Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> 25 years to write one of the first major treatises on anthropology, his <i>Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</i>.<sup id="_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#_note-27" title="">[27]</a></sup>  Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, however, as he never left his region of Germany nor did he study any cultures besides his own.<sup id="_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#_note-28" title="">[28]</a></sup>  He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772. Anthropology is thus primarily an <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and post-<a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> endeavor.</p>
<p>Historians of anthropology, like Marvin Harris,<sup id="_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#_note-29" title="">[29]</a></sup> indicate two major frameworks within which empirical anthropology has arisen: interest in comparisons of people over space and interest in longterm human processes or humans as viewed through time. Harris dates both to <a href="Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> and <a href="Classical_Rome" title="Classical Rome">Classical Rome</a>, specifically <a href="Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, often called the "father of history" and the <a href="Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> historian <a href="Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, who wrote many of our only surviving contemporary accounts of several ancient <a href="Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> and <a href="Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>. Herodotus first formulated some of the persisting problems of anthropology.<sup id="_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#_note-30" title="">[30]</a></sup></p>
<p>Medieval scholars may be considered forerunners of modern anthropology as well, insofar as they conducted or wrote detailed studies of the customs of peoples considered "different" from themselves in terms of geography.  <a href="John_of_Plano_Carpini" title="John of Plano Carpini">John of Plano Carpini</a> reported of his stay among the <a href="Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. His report was unusual in its detailed depiction of a non-European culture.<sup id="_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#_note-31" title="">[31]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s systematic observations of nature, anthropology, and geography are another example of studying human variation across space.<sup id="_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#_note-32" title="">[32]</a></sup> Polo's travels took him across such a diverse human landscape and his accounts of the peoples he encountered as he journeyed were so detailed that they earned for Polo the name "the father of modern anthropology."<sup id="_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#_note-33" title="">[33]</a></sup></p>
<p>Another candidate for one of the first scholars to carry out comparative ethnographic-type studies in person was the medieval <a href="Persian_people" title="Persian people">Persian</a> scholar <a href="Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" title="Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī</a> in the 11th century, who wrote about the peoples, customs, and religions of the <a href="Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. Like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive <a href="Participant_observation" title="participant observation">participant observation</a> with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, and presented his findings with <a href="Objectivity" title="objectivity">objectivity</a> and <a href="Neutrality_(philosophy)" title="Neutrality (philosophy)">neutrality</a> using <a href="Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">cross-cultural comparisons</a>.<sup id="_ref-Ahmed_a" class="reference"><a href="#_note-Ahmed" title="">[34]</a></sup> He wrote detailed comparative studies on the religions and cultures in the <a href="Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="Mediterranean_Basin" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean</a> and especially <a href="South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>.<sup id="_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#_note-35" title="">[35]</a></sup><sup id="_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#_note-36" title="">[36]</a></sup> Biruni's tradition of comparative cross-cultural study continued in the <a href="Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> through to <a href="Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>'s work in the 14th century.<sup id="_ref-Ahmed_b" class="reference"><a href="#_note-Ahmed" title="">[34]</a></sup><sup id="_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#_note-37" title="">[37]</a></sup></p>
<p>Most scholars{{Citation needed}} consider modern anthropology as an outgrowth of the <a href="Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, a period when Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior, the known varieties of which had been increasing since the 15th century as a result of the <a href="First_European_colonization_wave_(15th_century%E2%80%9319th_century)" title="first European colonization wave (15th century–19th century)">first European colonization wave</a>. The traditions of <a href="Jurisprudence" title="jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, <a href="History" title="history">history</a>, <a href="Philology" title="philology">philology</a>, and <a href="Sociology" title="sociology">sociology</a> then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the <a href="Social_sciences" title="social sciences">social sciences</a>, of which anthropology was a part.</p>
<p>Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of <a href="Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a> and <a href="Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a> informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures. At the same time, the <a href="Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as <a href="Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> and later <a href="Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a>, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept," which is central to the discipline.
<div style="width:200px;"><a class="internal" href="File:200px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg" title="Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia"><img src="200px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg" alt="Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia" title="Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia" class="location-right type-thumb" width="200"/>
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<div class="thumbcaption">Table of natural history, 1728 <i><a href="Cyclopaedia" title="Cyclopaedia">Cyclopaedia</a></i></div></div>
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<p>Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of <a href="Natural_history" title="natural history">natural history</a> (expounded by authors such as <a href="Georges-Louis_Leclerc%2C_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Buffon</a>) that occurred during the European colonization of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations.</p>
<p>There was a tendency in late 18th century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved in accordance with certain principles and that could be observed empirically. In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places.</p>
<p>Early anthropology was divided between proponents of <a href="Unilineal_evolution" title="unilineal evolution">unilinealism</a>, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced, and various forms of non-lineal theorists, who tended to subscribe to ideas such as <a href="Diffusionism" title="diffusionism">diffusionism</a>.<sup id="_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#_note-38" title="">[38]</a></sup> Most 19th-century social theorists, including anthropologists, viewed non-European societies as windows onto the pre-industrial human past.</p>
<p>As academic disciplines began to differentiate over the course of the 19th century, anthropology grew increasingly distinct from the biological approach of natural history, on the one hand, and from purely historical or literary fields such as Classics, on the other. A common criticism has been that many social science scholars (such as economists, sociologists, and psychologists) in Western countries focus disproportionately on Western subjects, while anthropology focuses disproportionately on the "Other";<sup id="_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#_note-39" title="">[39]</a></sup> this has changed over the last part of the 20th century as anthropologists increasingly also study Western subjects, particularly variation across class, region, or ethnicity within Western societies, and other social scientists increasingly take a global view of their fields.</p>
<a id="20th_Century" name="20th_Century"/><h3>20th Century</h3>
<p>In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. The natural and biological <i><a href="Sciences" title="sciences">sciences</a></i> seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. The <i><a href="Humanities" title="humanities">humanities</a></i> generally study local traditions, through their <a href="History" title="history">history</a>, <a href="Literature" title="literature">literature</a>, <a href="Music" title="music">music</a>, and <a href="Art" title="art">arts</a>, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras.</p>
<p>The <i><a href="Social_sciences" title="social sciences">social sciences</a></i> have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences. In particular, social sciences often develop statistical descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.<sup id="_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#_note-40" title="">[40]</a></sup></p>
<p>Anthropology as it emerged among the colonial powers (mentioned above) has generally taken a different path than that in the countries of southern and central Europe (<a href="Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, and the successors to the <a href="Austro-Hungarian" title="Austro-Hungarian">Austro-Hungarian</a> and <a href="Ottoman_empire" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman empires</a>). In the former, the encounter with multiple, distinct cultures, often very different in organization and language from those of Europe, has led to a continuing emphasis on <a href="Cross-cultural_comparison" title="cross-cultural comparison">cross-cultural comparison</a> and a receptiveness to certain kinds of cultural relativism.<sup id="_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#_note-41" title="">[41]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the successor states of continental Europe, on the other hand, anthropologists often joined with folklorists and linguists in the nationalist/nation-building enterprise. Ethnologists in these countries tended to focus on differentiating among local ethnolinguistic groups, documenting local folk culture, and representing the prehistory of the nation through museums and other forms of public education.<sup id="_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#_note-42" title="">[42]</a></sup></p>
<p>In this scheme, Russia occupied a middle position. On the one hand, it had a large Asian region of highly distinct, pre-industrial, often non-literate peoples, similar to the situation in the Americas; on the other hand, Russia also participated to some degree in the nationalist discourses of Central and Eastern Europe. After the Revolution of 1917, anthropology in the USSR and later the Soviet Bloc countries were highly shaped by the need to conform to Marxist theories of social evolution.<sup id="_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#_note-43" title="">[43]</a></sup></p>
<a id="Anthropology_by_nation" name="Anthropology_by_nation"/><h2>Anthropology by nation</h2>
<a id="Anthropology_in_Britain" name="Anthropology_in_Britain"/><h3>Anthropology in Britain</h3>
<p><a class="internal" href="File:Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" title="E. B. Tylor, 19th-century British anthropologist."><img src="Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" alt="E. B. Tylor, 19th-century British anthropologist." title="E. B. Tylor, 19th-century British anthropologist." class="location-right type-thumb"/>
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<div class="thumbcaption"><a href="E._B._Tylor" title="E. B. Tylor">E. B. Tylor</a>, 19th-century British anthropologist.</div>
<a href="Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">E. B. Tylor</a> ( 2 October 1832 – 2 January 1917) and <a href="James_Frazer" title="James Frazer">James George Frazer</a> ( 1 January 1854 – 7 May 1941) are generally considered the antecedents to modern <a href="Social_anthropology" title="social anthropology">social anthropology</a> in Britain. Though Tylor undertook a field trip to <a href="Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive reading, not fieldwork, mainly the Classics (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists.</p>
<p>Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind".<sup id="_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#_note-44" title="">[44]</a></sup> Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of <a href="Cultural_diffusionism" title="cultural diffusionism">cultural diffusionism</a>, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [sic] to another."<sup id="_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#_note-45" title="">[45]</a></sup></p>
<p>Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of <a href="Culture" title="culture">culture</a> as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."<sup id="_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#_note-46" title="">[46]</a></sup> However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists.</p>
<p>Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious feelings in human beings, proposing a theory of <a href="Animism" title="animism">animism</a> as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of <i><a href="The_Golden_Bough" title="The Golden Bough">The Golden Bough</a></i>, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally.</p>
<p>Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, were particularly interested in <a href="Fieldwork" title="fieldwork">fieldwork</a>, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements and institutions fit together. Toward the turn of the twentieth century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative.</p>
<p>Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (<a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synchronic">synchronic</a> analysis, rather than <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diachronic">diachronic</a> or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork. <a href="Cambridge_University" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> financed a multidisciplinary expedition to the <a href="Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a> in 1898, organized by Alfred Court Haddon and including a physician-anthropologist, <a href="W._H._R._Rivers" title="W. H. R. Rivers">W. H. R. Rivers</a>, as well as a linguist, a botanist, other specialists. The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.</p>
<p>A decade and a half later, Polish-born anthropology student <a href="Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> (1884-1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of <a href="Fieldwork" title="fieldwork">fieldwork</a> in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in <a href="New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>. As a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire resident on a British colonial possession, he was effectively confined to New Guinea for several years.<sup id="_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#_note-47" title="">[47]</a></sup></p>
<p>He made use of the time by undertaking far more intensive fieldwork than had been done by <i>British</i> anthropologists, and his classic ethnography, <i><a href="Argonauts_of_the_Western_Pacific" title="Argonauts of the Western Pacific">Argonauts of the Western Pacific</a></i> (1922) advocated an approach to <a href="Fieldwork" title="fieldwork">fieldwork</a> that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through <a href="Participant_observation" title="participant observation">participant observation</a>. Theoretically, he advocated a <a href="Functionalism_(sociology)" title="Functionalism (sociology)">functionalist</a> interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to meet individual needs.</p>
<p>British social anthropology had an expansive moment in the <a href="Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a>, with key contributors as <a href="Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> and <a href="Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a><sup id="_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#_note-48" title="">[48]</a></sup></p>
<p><a href="A._R._Radcliffe-Brown" title="A. R. Radcliffe-Brown">A. R. Radcliffe-Brown</a> also published a seminal work in 1922. He had carried out his initial fieldwork in the <a href="Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a> in the old style of historical reconstruction. However, after reading the work of French sociologists <a href="Émile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> and <a href="Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply <i>The Andaman Islanders</i>) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as <a href="Structural_functionalism" title="structural functionalism">structural-functionalism</a>, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. (This contrasted with Malinowski's functionalism, and was quite different from the later French <a href="Structuralism#Structuralism_in_anthropology_and_sociology" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, which examined the conceptual structures in language and symbolism.)</p>
<p>Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the <a href="Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">British Commonwealth</a>. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology (BSA). Famous ethnographies include <i>The Nuer,</i> by <a href="Edward_Evan_Evans-Pritchard" title="Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard">Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard</a>, and <i>The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi,</i> by <a href="Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a>; well-known edited volumes include <i>African Systems of Kinship and Marriage</i> and <i>African Political Systems.</i></p>
<p><a href="Max_Gluckman" title="Max Gluckman">Max Gluckman</a>, together with many of his colleagues at the <a href="Rhodes-Livingstone_Institute" title="Rhodes-Livingstone Institute">Rhodes-Livingstone Institute</a> and students at <a href="Manchester_University" title="Manchester University">Manchester University</a>, collectively known as the <a href="Manchester_School_(anthropology)" title="Manchester School (anthropology)">Manchester School</a>, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities.</p>
<p>In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the growth of <a href="Cultural_relativism" title="cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, an awareness of the survival of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diachronic">diachronic</a> modes of analysis with <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synchronic">synchronic</a>, all of which are central to modern culture."<sup id="_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#_note-49" title="">[49]</a></sup></p>
<p>Later in the 1960s and 1970s, <a href="Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a> and his students <a href="Mary_Douglas" title="Mary Douglas">Mary Douglas</a> and <a href="Nur_Yalman" title="Nur Yalman">Nur Yalman</a>, among others, introduced French structuralism in the style of <a href="Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a>; while British anthropology has continued to emphasize social organization and economics over purely symbolic or literary topics, differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue and borrowing of both theory and methods. Today, social anthropology in Britain engages internationally with many other social theories and has branched in many directions.</p>
<p>In countries of the British Commonwealth, social anthropology has often been institutionally separate from <a href="Physical_anthropology" title="physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a> and <a href="Primatology" title="primatology">primatology</a>, which may be connected with departments of biology or zoology; and from archaeology, which may be connected with departments of <a href="Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a>, <a href="Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>, and the like. In other countries (and in some, particularly smaller, British and North American universities), anthropologists have also found themselves institutionally linked with scholars of <a href="Folklore" title="folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="Museology" title="Museology">museum studies</a>, <a href="Human_geography" title="human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="Sociology" title="sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="Social_relations" title="social relations">social relations</a>, <a href="Ethnic_studies" title="ethnic studies">ethnic studies</a>, <a href="Cultural_studies" title="cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, and <a href="Social_work" title="social work">social work</a>.</p>
<a id="Anthropology_in_the_United_States" name="Anthropology_in_the_United_States"/><h3>Anthropology in the United States</h3>
<a id="19th_Century_to_1940s" name="19th_Century_to_1940s"/><h4>19th Century to 1940s</h4>
<p>From its beginnings in the early 19th century through the early 20th century, anthropology in the United States was influenced by the presence of <a href="Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> societies.</p>
<p><a class="internal" href="File:FranzBoas.jpg" title="Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the &quot;Father of American Anthropology&quot;"><img src="FranzBoas.jpg" alt="Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the &quot;Father of American Anthropology&quot;" title="Franz Boas, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the &quot;Father of American Anthropology&quot;" class="location-right type-thumb"/>
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<div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a>, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"</div>
<a href="Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a> in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the <a href="Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> and the Smithsonian Institution's <a href="Bureau_of_American_Ethnology" title="Bureau of American Ethnology">Bureau of American Ethnology</a>, men such as <a href="John_Wesley_Powell" title="John Wesley Powell">John Wesley Powell</a> and <a href="Frank_Hamilton_Cushing" title="Frank Hamilton Cushing">Frank Hamilton Cushing</a>.</p>
<p><a href="Lewis_Henry_Morgan" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a> (1818-1881), a lawyer from <a href="Rochester%2C_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester</a>, <a href="New_York" title="New York">New York</a>, became an advocate for an ethnological scholar of the <a href="Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a>. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as <a href="Edward_Tylor" title="Edward Tylor">Edward Tylor</a>), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from <i>savagery</i>, to <i>barbarism</i>, to <i>civilization</i>. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale.<sup id="_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#_note-50" title="">[50]</a></sup></p>
<a id="Boasian_anthropology" name="Boasian_anthropology"/><h4>Boasian anthropology</h4>
<p><a href="Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature.</p>
<p>Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct <i>cultures,</i> rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the <a href="Natural_science" title="natural science">natural sciences</a>, were not possible.</p>
<p>In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, blacks, and indigenous peoples of the Americas.<sup id="_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#_note-51" title="">[51]</a></sup> Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular subjects for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and archaic anthropology (i.e., archaeology). Anthropology in the United States continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture.
<a class="internal" href="File:Ruth_Benedict.jpg" title="Ruth Benedict in 1937"><img src="Ruth_Benedict.jpg" alt="Ruth Benedict in 1937" title="Ruth Benedict in 1937" class="location-none type-thumb"/>
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<div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a> in 1937</div></p>
<p>Boas used his positions at <a href="Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and the <a href="American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a> to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included <a href="Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a>, <a href="Robert_Lowie" title="Robert Lowie">Robert Lowie</a>, <a href="Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a> and <a href="Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a>, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish <a href="Linguistics" title="linguistics">linguistics</a> as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on <a href="Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>.</p>
<p>The publication of <a href="Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a>'s textbook, <i>Anthropology,</i> marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as <a href="Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a> and <a href="Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a>. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including <a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up.</p>
<p>Though such works as <i><a href="Coming_of_Age_in_Samoa" title="Coming of Age in Samoa">Coming of Age in Samoa</a></i> and <i><a href="The_Chrysanthemum_and_the_Sword" title="The Chrysanthemum and the Sword">The Chrysanthemum and the Sword</a></i> remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by <a href="Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a>, and Mead was limited to her offices at the <a href="American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">AMNH</a>.</p>
<a id="Anthropology_in_Canada" name="Anthropology_in_Canada"/><h3>Anthropology in Canada</h3>
<p>Canadian anthropology began, as in other parts of the Colonial world, as ethnological data in the records of travellers and missionaries. In Canada, <a href="Jesuit" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> such as Fathers LeClercq, Le Jeune and Sagard, in the 1600s, provide the oldest ethnographic records of native tribes in what was then the Domain of Canada.</p>
<p>True anthropology began with a <a href="Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government department</a>: the <a href="Geological_Survey_of_Canada" title="Geological Survey of Canada">Geological Survey of Canada</a>, and <a href="George_Mercer_Dawson" title="George Mercer Dawson">George Mercer Dawson</a> (director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who established a Division of Anthropology within the Geological Survey in 1910. Anthropologists were recruited from England and the USA, setting the foundation for the unique Canadian style of anthropology. Scholars include the linguist and Boasian <a href="Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a>.</p>
<a id="Anthropology_in_France" name="Anthropology_in_France"/><h3>Anthropology in France</h3>
<p><a class="internal" href="File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" title="Émile Durkheim"><img src="Emile_Durkheim.jpg" alt="Émile Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim" class="location-none type-thumb"/>
</a>
<div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Émile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></div>
Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology.</p>
<p>Most commentators consider <a href="Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> (1872-1950), nephew of the influential sociologist <a href="Émile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's <a href="Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique" title="Année Sociologique">Année Sociologique</a> group; and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as <a href="Henri_Hubert" title="Henri Hubert">Henri Hubert</a> and <a href="Robert_Hertz" title="Robert Hertz">Robert Hertz</a>) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states.</p>
<p>Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: <i><a href="The_Gift_(book)" title="The Gift (book)">Essay on the Gift</a></i> a seminal analysis of <a href="Trade" title="trade">exchange</a> and <a href="Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">reciprocity</a>, and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally.<sup id="_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#_note-52" title="">[52]</a></sup></p>
<p>Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as <a href="Surrealism" title="surrealism">surrealism</a> and <a href="Primitivism_(art_movement)" title="primitivism (art movement)">primitivism</a> which drew on ethnography for inspiration. <a href="Marcel_Griaule" title="Marcel Griaule">Marcel Griaule</a> and <a href="Michel_Leiris" title="Michel Leiris">Michel Leiris</a> are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as <i>ethnologie</i> was restricted to museums, such as the <a href="Mus%C3%A9e_de_l'Homme" title="Musée de l'Homme">Musée de l'Homme</a> founded by <a href="Paul_Rivet" title="Paul Rivet">Paul Rivet</a>, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of <a href="Folklore" title="folklore">folklore</a>.</p>
<p>Above all, however, it was <a href="Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his <a href="Structuralism" title="structuralism">structuralism</a> exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as <a href="Maurice_Godelier" title="Maurice Godelier">Maurice Godelier</a> and <a href="Fran%C3%A7oise_H%C3%A9ritier" title="Françoise Héritier">Françoise Héritier</a> who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories (<a href="Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">CNRS</a>) rather than academic departments in universities.</p>
<p>Other influential writers in the 1970s include <a href="Pierre_Clastres" title="Pierre Clastres">Pierre Clastres</a>, who explains in his books on the <a href="Guayaki" title="Guayaki">Guayaki</a> tribe in <a href="Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the <a href="Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a>. Therefore, these stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but took the active choice of conjuring the institution of <a href="Authority" title="authority">authority</a> as a separate function from society. The <a href="Leadership" title="Leadership">leader</a> is only a spokesperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position.</p>
<p>The most important French social theorist since Foucault and Lévi-Strauss is <a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a>, who trained formally in philosophy and sociology and eventually held the Chair of Sociology at the Collège de France. Like Mauss and others before him, however, he worked on topics both in sociology and anthropology. His fieldwork among the Kabyles of Algeria places him solidly in anthropology, while his analysis of the function and reproduction of fashion and cultural capital in European societies places him as solidly in sociology.</p>
<a id="Other_countries" name="Other_countries"/><h3>Other countries</h3>
<p>Anthropology in <a href="Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> is much influenced by British anthropology.{{Citation needed}} In <a href="Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, there was since the 19th century a science of the <a href="Folklore" title="folklore">folklore</a> called <i>laographia</i> (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside".<sup id="_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#_note-53" title="">[53]</a></sup> In <a href="Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, the development of <a href="Ethnology" title="ethnology">ethnology</a> and related studies did not receive as much attention as other branches of learning.<sup id="_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#_note-54" title="">[54]</a></sup>
<a href="Praveen_Attri" title="Praveen Attri">Praveen Attri</a>, an Indian sociologist, emphasised wide research in Indian anthropology.</p>
<p><a href="Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> are the countries that showed the most division and conflict between scholars focusing on domestic socio-cultural issues and scholars focusing on "other" societies.{{Citation needed}}</p>
<a id="Anthropology_after_World_War_II:_Increasing_dialogue_in_Anglophone_anthropology" name="Anthropology_after_World_War_II:_Increasing_dialogue_in_Anglophone_anthropology"/><h2>Anthropology after World War II: Increasing dialogue in Anglophone anthropology</h2>
<p>Before <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">WWII</a> British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.</p>
<p>In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the <a href="Natural_science" title="natural science">natural sciences</a>. Some anthropologists, such as <a href="Lloyd_Fallers" title="Lloyd Fallers">Lloyd Fallers</a> and <a href="Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a>, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as <a href="Julian_Steward" title="Julian Steward">Julian Steward</a> and <a href="Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a>, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche—an approach popularized by <a href="Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a>.</p>
<p><a href="Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic anthropology</a> as influenced by <a href="Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> and practiced by <a href="Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a> and <a href="George_Dalton" title="George Dalton">George Dalton</a> challenged standard neoclassical <a href="Economics" title="economics">economics</a> to take account of cultural and social factors, and also employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as <a href="Max_Gluckman" title="Max Gluckman">Max Gluckman</a> and <a href="Peter_Worsley" title="Peter Worsley">Peter Worsley</a> experimented with Marxism and authors such as <a href="Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a> and <a href="Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a> incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work.</p>
<p>Structuralism also influenced a number of developments in 1960s and 1970s, including <a href="Psychological_anthropology#Cognitive_Anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">cognitive anthropology</a> and componential analysis. Authors such as <a href="David_Schneider_(anthropologist)" title="David Schneider (anthropologist)">David Schneider</a>, <a href="Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a>, and <a href="Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a> developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the <a href="Algerian_War_of_Independence" title="Algerian War of Independence">Algerian War of Independence</a> and opposition to the <a href="Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>;<sup id="_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#_note-55" title="">[55]</a></sup> <a href="Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline.<sup id="_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#_note-56" title="">[56]</a></sup> By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as <i>Reinventing Anthropology</i> worried about anthropology's relevance.</p>
<p>Since the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in <a href="Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a>'s <i><a href="Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the People Without History</a></i>, have been central to the discipline. In the 80s books like <i>Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter</i> pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as <a href="Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> and <a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> moved issues of power and <a href="Hegemony" title="hegemony">hegemony</a> into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became popular topics, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by <a href="Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a> (again), who drew on <a href="Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a> and <a href="Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. Also influential in these issues were <a href="Nietzsche" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, <a href="Heidegger" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>, the critical theory of the <a href="Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>, <a href="Derrida" title="Derrida">Derrida</a> and <a href="Lacan" title="Lacan">Lacan</a>.<sup id="_ref-Lewis_a" class="reference"><a href="#_note-Lewis" title="">[57]</a></sup></p>
<p>In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as <a href="George_Marcus" title="George Marcus">George Marcus</a> and <a href="James_Clifford" title="James Clifford">James Clifford</a> pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. They were reflecting trends in research and discourse initiated by Feminists in the academy, although they excused themselves from commenting specifically on those pioneering critics.<sup id="_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#_note-58" title="">[58]</a></sup> Nevertheless, key aspects of feminist theorizing and methods became <i>de rigueur</i> as part of the 'post-modern moment' in anthropology: Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology, cultural, gender and racial positioning, and their influence on his or her ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of <a href="Postmodernism" title="postmodernism">postmodernism</a> that was popular contemporaneously.<sup id="_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#_note-59" title="">[59]</a></sup> Currently anthropologists pay attention to a wide variety of issues pertaining to the contemporary world, including <a href="Globalization" title="globalization">globalization</a>, <a href="Medicine" title="medicine">medicine</a> and <a href="Biotechnology" title="biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="Rights_of_indigenous_peoples" title="rights of indigenous peoples">indigenous rights</a>, <a href="Virtual_communities" title="virtual communities">virtual communities</a>, and the anthropology of <a href="Industrial_society" title="industrial society">industrialized societies</a>.</p>
<a id="Controversies_about_the_history_of_anthropology" name="Controversies_about_the_history_of_anthropology"/><h2>Controversies about the history of anthropology</h2>
<p>Anthropologists, like other researchers (esp. historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.<sup id="_ref-pbuteh_a" class="reference"><a href="#_note-pbuteh" title="">[60]</a></sup><sup id="_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#_note-61" title="">[61]</a></sup></p>
<p>Some commentators have contended:</p>

<ul>
<li>That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derived some of its key notions from it, consciously or not.   (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).<sup id="_ref-Gellner_a" class="reference"><a href="#_note-Gellner" title="">[62]</a></sup></li>
<li>That anthropologists typically have more power than the people they study and hence their knowledge-making is a form of theft in which the anthropologist gains something for him or herself at the expense of informants.</li>
<li>That ethnographic work was often <a href="Ahistoricism" title="Ahistoricism">ahistorical</a>, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (<a href="Johannes_Fabian" title="Johannes Fabian">Johannes Fabian</a>, <i>Time and Its Other</i>).</li></ul>

<a id="Anthropology_and_the_military" name="Anthropology_and_the_military"/><h3>Anthropology and the military</h3>
<p>Anthropologists’ involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.</p>
<p>But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the "Axis" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces but others worked in intelligence (for example, <a href="Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a> (OSS) and the <a href="Office_of_War_Information" title="Office of War Information">Office of War Information</a>). At the same time, <a href="David_H._Price" title="David H. Price">David H. Price</a>'s work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.</p>
<p>Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little (although anthropologist Hugo Nutini was active in the stillborn <a href="Project_Camelot" title="Project Camelot">Project Camelot</a>).<sup id="_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#_note-63" title="">[63]</a></sup> Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement and a great many resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the <a href="American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> (AAA).</p>
<p>In the decades since the Vietnam war the tone of cultural and social anthropology, at least, has been increasingly politicized, with the dominant liberal tone of earlier generations replaced with one more radical, a mix of, and varying degrees of, Marxist, feminist, anarchist, post-colonial, post-modern, Saidian, Foucauldian, identity-based, and more.<sup id="_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#_note-64" title="">[64]</a></sup></p>
<p>Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the <a href="Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a>. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The <a href="Association_of_Social_Anthropologists_of_the_UK_and_Commonwealth" title="Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth">Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth</a> (ASA ) has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given."</p>
<p>However, anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are once again being used in warfare as part of the <a class="externallink" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm">US Army's strategy in Afghanistan</a>. The <a href="Christian_Science_Monitor" title="Christian Science Monitor">Christian Science Monitor</a> reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in <a href="War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–present)">Afghanistan</a>, under the <a href="Rubric_(academic)" title="Rubric (academic)">rubric</a> of  <i>Human Terrain Team</i> (HTT).<sup id="_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#_note-65" title="">[65]</a></sup></p>
<a id="Major_discussions_about_anthropology" name="Major_discussions_about_anthropology"/><h2>Major discussions about anthropology</h2>
<a id="Focus_on_other_cultures" name="Focus_on_other_cultures"/><h3>Focus on other cultures</h3>
<p>Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-<a href="Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> societies). For example, the classic of <a href="Urban_anthropology" title="urban anthropology">urban anthropology</a>, <a href="Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a> in the introduction to his seminal <i>Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology</i> mentions that the "<a href="Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.<sup id="_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#_note-66" title="">[66]</a></sup></p>
<p>Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home".<sup id="_ref-Lewis_b" class="reference"><a href="#_note-Lewis" title="">[57]</a></sup> It is also argued that other fields of study, like <a href="History" title="History">History</a> and <a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a>, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.<sup id="_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#_note-67" title="">[67]</a></sup></p>
<p>In France, the study of existing contemporary society has been traditionally left to <a href="Sociologist" title="sociologist">sociologists</a>, but this is increasingly changing,<sup id="_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#_note-68" title="">[68]</a></sup> starting in the 1970s from scholars like <a href="Isac_Chiva" title="Isac Chiva">Isac Chiva</a> and journals like <i><a href="Terrain_(journal)" title="Terrain (journal)">Terrain</a></i> ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by <a href="Marc_Aug%C3%A9" title="Marc Augé">Marc Augé</a> (<i><a href="École_des_hautes_%C3%A9tudes_en_sciences_sociales" title="École des hautes études en sciences sociales">Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains</a></i>, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). The same approach of focusing on "modern world" topics by <i>Terrain</i>, was also present in the British <a href="Manchester_School_(anthropology)" title="Manchester School (anthropology)">Manchester School</a> of the 1950s.{{Citation needed}}</p>
<a id="See_also" name="See_also"/><h2>See also</h2>
<p>{{portal}}
{{main}}</p>

<ul>
<li><a href="Anthropological_Index_Online" title="Anthropological Index Online">Anthropological Index Online</a> (AIO)</li>
<li><a href="Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li>
<li><a href="Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li>
<li><a href="Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li>
<li><a href="Intangible_Cultural_Heritage" title="Intangible Cultural Heritage">Intangible Cultural Heritage</a></li>
<li><a href="Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a></li>
<li><a href="Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Philosophical anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li>
<li><a href="Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="Theological_anthropology" title="Theological anthropology">Theological anthropology</a>, which is not part of anthropology but a subfield of theology</li>
<li>Periodic Table of Human Sciences / Anthropology in <a href="Tinbergen's_four_questions" title="Tinbergen's four questions">Tinbergen's four questions</a></li></ul>

<a id="References" name="References"/><h2>References</h2>
<p>{{reflist}}
</p>
<div class="references-small"/>

<a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"/><h2>Further reading</h2>
<a id="Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias_of_anthropology" name="Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias_of_anthropology"/><h4>Dictionaries and encyclopedias of anthropology</h4>

<ul>
<li>Barfield, Thomas (1997).  <i>The dictionary of anthropology.</i>  Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.</li></ul>

<a id="Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists" name="Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists"/><h3>Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists</h3>

<ul>
<li>Barley, Nigel (1983) <i>The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut</i>. London: British Museum Publications.</li>
<li>Geertz, Clifford (1995) <i>After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</li>
<li>Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967) <i>Tristes tropiques</i>. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum.</li>
<li>Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) <i>A diary in the strict sense of the term</i>. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York, Harcourt, Brace &amp; World.</li>
<li>Rabinow, Paul. (1977) <i>Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco</i>.</li></ul>

<a id="History_of_anthropology" name="History_of_anthropology"/><h3>History of anthropology</h3>

<ul>
<li>Asad, Talal, ed. (1973) <i>Anthropology &amp; the Colonial Encounter</i>. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.</li>
<li>Barth, Fredrik, Andre Gingrich, Robert Parkin,  <i>One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li>
<li>D'Andrade, R. "The Sad Story of Anthropology: 1950-1999." In E. L. Cerroni-Long, ed. <i>Anthropological Theory in North America</i>. Westport: Berin &amp; Garvey 1999. <a class="externallink" href="http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~rdandrad/Sadstory" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~rdandrad/Sadstory">download</a></li>
<li>Darnell, Regna. (2001) <i>Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology</i>. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.</li>
<li>Deeb, Benjamin. (2007) <i>Anthropology and Social Problems: A Manual of Change</i>.</li>
<li>Harris, Marvin. (2001[1968]) <i>The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture</i>. AltaMira Press. Walnut Creek, CA.</li>
<li>Kehoe, Alice B. (1998)  <i>The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology</i>.</li>
<li>Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences." <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 100: 716-731.</li>
<li>Lewis, Herbert S. (2004) "Imagining Anthropology's History." <i>Reviews in Anthropology</i>, v. 33.</li>
<li>Lewis, Herbert S. (2005) "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History. In R. Darnell &amp; F.W. Gleach, eds. <i>Histories of Anthropology Annual</i>, Vol. I.</li>
<li>Pels, Peter &amp; Oscar Salemink, eds. (2000) <i>Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology</i>.</li>
<li>Price, David. (2004) <i>Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists</i>.</li>
<li>Stocking, George, Jr. (1968) <i>Race, Culture and Evolution</i>. New York: Free Press.</li>
<li>Trencher, Susan. (2000) <i>Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960-1980</i>.</li></ul>

<a id="Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works" name="Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works"/><h3>Textbooks and key theoretical works</h3>

<ul>
<li>Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) <i>Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li>
<li>Geertz, Clifford (1973) <i>The Interpretation of Cultures</i>. New York: Basic Books.</li>
<li>Harris, Marvin (1997) <i>Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology (7th Edition)</i>. Boston: Allyn &amp; Bacon</li>
<li>Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) <i>Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology</i>. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</li>
<li>Shweder, Richard A., and Robert A. LeVine, eds. (1984) <i>Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul>

<a id="External_links" name="External_links"/><h2>External links</h2>
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</p>
<ul>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.aaanet.org/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.aaanet.org/">American Anthropological Association Homepage</a> Home page of largest professional organization of anthropologists</li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.physanth.org/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.physanth.org/">American Association of Physical Anthropologists</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.aas.asn.au/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.aas.asn.au/">Australian Anthropological Society</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.easaonline.org/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.easaonline.org/">European Association of Social Anthropologists</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://movinganthropology.ning.com/" rel="nofollow" title="http://movinganthropology.ning.com/">The Moving Anthropology Student Network</a> - International Association of Anthropology Students</li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.isita-org.com/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.isita-org.com/">Italian Institute of Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.practicinganthropology.org/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.practicinganthropology.org/">National Association for the Practice of Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.therai.org.uk/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.therai.org.uk/">The Royal Anthropological Institute Homepage</a>—The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI)</li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.sfaa.net/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.sfaa.net/">The Society for Applied Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/anthro" rel="nofollow" title="http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/anthro">Annual Review of Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://anthro.amnh.org/" rel="nofollow" title="http://anthro.amnh.org/">Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History</a> Online collections database with detailed description and digital images for over 160,000 ethnographic artifacts.</li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.nmnh.si.edu/naa/">National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution</a> Collects and preserves historical and contemporary anthropological materials that document the world's cultures and the history of anthropology</li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.aio.anthropology.org.uk" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.aio.anthropology.org.uk">The Anthropological Index Online</a> Online biblographic database.</li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://www.archeologydaily.com" rel="nofollow" title="http://www.archeologydaily.com">Archaeology Daily News</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://anthrodaily.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" title="http://anthrodaily.blogspot.com/">Anthropology Daily News</a></li>
<li><a class="externallink" href="http://anthroplogicalprism.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" title="http://anthroplogicalprism.blogspot.com/">The Prism: Anthropological Reflections on Culture &amp; Society</a></li></ul>

<p>

</p>
<p>{{Link FA}}
<a href="http://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie">af:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86">ar:علم الإنسان</a>
<a href="http://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloch%C3%ADa">an:Antropolochía</a>
<a href="Frp:Antropologia" title="frp:Antropologia">frp:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolox%C3%ADa">ast:Antropoloxía</a>
<a href="http://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avakuaaty">gn:Avakuaaty</a>
<a href="http://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologiya">az:Antropologiya</a>
<a href="http://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloji">bm:Antropoloji</a>
<a href="http://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8">bn:নৃবিজ্ঞান</a>
<a href="http://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%AEn-l%C5%ABi-ha%CC%8Dk">zh-min-nan:Jîn-lūi-ha̍k</a>
<a href="http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F">be-x-old:Антрапалёгія</a>
<a href="http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija">bs:Antropologija</a>
<a href="http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologiezh">br:Antropologiezh</a>
<a href="http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F">bg:Антропология</a>
<a href="http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">ca:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8">cv:Антропологи</a>
<a href="Ceb:Antropolohiya" title="ceb:Antropolohiya">ceb:Antropolohiya</a>
<a href="http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie">cs:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">co:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropoleg">cy:Anthropoleg</a>
<a href="http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">da:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie">de:Anthropologie</a>
<a href="http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloogia">et:Antropoloogia</a>
<a href="http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1">el:Ανθρωπολογία</a>
<a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolog%C3%ADa">es:Antropología</a>
<a href="http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologio">eo:Antropologio</a>
<a href="http://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">eu:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C">fa:مردم‌شناسی</a>
<a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie">fr:Anthropologie</a>
<a href="http://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropology">fy:Antropology</a>
<a href="http://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologjie">fur:Antropologjie</a>
<a href="http://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antraipeola%C3%ADocht">ga:Antraipeolaíocht</a>
<a href="http://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrapoaylleeaght">gv:Antrapoaylleeaght</a>
<a href="http://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corp-e%C3%B2las">gd:Corp-eòlas</a>
<a href="http://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolox%C3%ADa">gl:Antropoloxía</a>
<a href="http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99">ko:인류학</a>
<a href="http://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0">hi:मानवशास्त्र</a>
<a href="http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija">hr:Antropologija</a>
<a href="http://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologio">io:Antropologio</a>
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">id:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologia">ia:Anthropologia</a>
<a href="http://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie">ie:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i">is:Mannfræði</a>
<a href="http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">it:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94">he:אנתרופולוגיה</a>
<a href="http://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">jv:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">kl:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90">ka:ანთროპოლოგია</a>
<a href="http://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrop%C3%B2logij%C3%B4">csb:Antropòlogijô</a>
<a href="http://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F">ky:Антропология</a>
<a href="http://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwopoloji">ht:Antwopoloji</a>
<a href="http://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloj%C3%AE">ku:Antropolojî</a>
<a href="Lad:Antropolojiya" title="lad:Antropolojiya">lad:Antropolojiya</a>
<a href="http://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94">lo:ມະນຸດສາດ</a>
<a href="http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologia">la:Anthropologia</a>
<a href="http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolo%C4%A3ija">lv:Antropoloģija</a>
<a href="http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie">lb:Anthropologie</a>
<a href="http://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija">lt:Antropologija</a>
<a href="Lij:Antropologia" title="lij:Antropologia">lij:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie">li:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/remske">jbo:remske</a>
<a href="http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropol%C3%B3gia">hu:Antropológia</a>
<a href="http://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0">mk:Антропологија</a>
<a href="http://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolo%C4%A1ija">mt:Antropoloġija</a>
<a href="http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">ms:Antropologi</a>
<a href="Mwl:Antropologie" title="mwl:Antropologie">mwl:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%AF%E1%80%BF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92">my:မနုဿဗေဒ</a>
<a href="http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie">nl:Antropologie</a>
<a href="Nds-nl:Antropologie" title="nds-nl:Antropologie">nds-nl:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%A6">ja:人類学</a>
<a href="http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">no:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">nn:Antropologi</a>
<a href="Nrm:Anthropologie" title="nrm:Anthropologie">nrm:Anthropologie</a>
<a href="Nov:Antropologia" title="nov:Antropologia">nov:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">oc:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87">ps:وګړپوهنه</a>
<a href="http://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloji">tpi:Antropoloji</a>
<a href="http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_(nauka)">pl:Antropologia (nauka)</a>
<a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">pt:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie">ro:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F">ru:Антропология</a>
<a href="http://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82">sa:मानवविज्ञानं</a>
<a href="Sco:Antropologie" title="sco:Antropologie">sco:Antropologie</a>
<a href="http://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologjia">sq:Antropologjia</a>
<a href="http://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolugg%C3%ACa">scn:Antropoluggìa</a>
<a href="http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology">simple:Anthropology</a>
<a href="http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropol%C3%B3gia">sk:Antropológia</a>
<a href="http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija">sl:Antropologija</a>
<a href="http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0">sr:Антропологија</a>
<a href="http://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija">sh:Antropologija</a>
<a href="http://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">su:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia">fi:Antropologia</a>
<a href="http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi">sv:Antropologi</a>
<a href="http://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham-tao">tl:Agham-tao</a>
<a href="http://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D">ta:மானிடவியல்</a>
<a href="http://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2">th:มานุษยวิทยา</a>
<a href="http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloji">tr:Antropoloji</a>
<a href="http://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F">uk:Антропологія</a>
<a href="Vec:Studio_de_l'omo" title="vec:Studio de l'omo">vec:Studio de l'omo</a>
<a href="http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A2n_ch%E1%BB%A7ng_h%E1%BB%8Dc">vi:Nhân chủng học</a>
<a href="Fiu-vro:Antropoloogia" title="fiu-vro:Antropoloogia">fiu-vro:Antropoloogia</a>
<a href="War:Antropolohiya" title="war:Antropolohiya">war:Antropolohiya</a>
<a href="http://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2">yi:אנטראפאלאגיע</a>
<a href="Diq:Antropolociye" title="diq:Antropolociye">diq:Antropolociye</a>
<a href="Zea:Antropolohie" title="zea:Antropolohie">zea:Antropolohie</a>
<a href="Bat-smg:Antropoluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="bat-smg:Antropoluogėjė">bat-smg:Antropoluogėjė</a>
<a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6">zh:人类学</a></p></text>
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